C4 VS CAM Plants

Both C4 plants and CAM plants are for hot and dry environments, except CAM plants are plants that exist where it is impossible to collect carbon dioxide during the day because it'll lose too much water.

C4 plants collect carbon dioxide in the mesophyll cell, circulate it until it becomes oxaloacetate, and then it brings the carbon dioxide into the bundle-sheath cell to start the Calvin cycle.

In CAM plants, the stomata is closed during the day, meaning all the CO2 will have to be collected and stored inside the mesophyll cell, since photosynthesis can only happen during the day.  When the day approaches, the stomata closes again, and photosynthesis can start with the carbon dioxide that was stored during the night.

Review for Macromolecules

Guys, check it:  http://bilingualbiology11a.blogspot.com/2010_09_01_archive.html.  a bio teacher's blog.


Carbohydrates
-Carbs are made of a series of carbon chains with many hydroxyl bonds
-Four types:  monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
-Two types of monosaccharides:  aldose and ketose.  aldose comes from aldehyde end, and ketose has a ketose group, usually on second carbon of the carbohydrate chain.
-Carbohydrates can be in cyclical structures, for alpha, both hydroxyl ends are pointing down, while for beta, at least one hydroxyl end is pointing up.

-Amylose are fats inside plants that have alpha 1-4 bonds, which results in a linear shape
-Amylopectin are fats inside plants also, that have mainly alpha 1-4 bonds, but sometimes have alpha 1-6 bonds, which results in branches
-Glycogen are fats stored by animals.  They are similar in structure to Amylopectin, but have more alpha 1-6 bonds.
-Cellulose is made of glucose with beta 1-4 bonds.  Cellulose found in plant cell walls.
-Carbohydrate monosaccharides use glycosidic bonds to combine with each other (bonding between hydroxyl groups).  this results in production of H20, which is why glycosidic bonds are condensation.
-Glucose + Glucose = Maltose.  Condensation
-Glucose + Galactose = Lactose.  Condensation
-Sucrose = Fructose + Glucose.  Hydrolysis (requires water to break down bonds)

Proteins
-protein structure:  one carboxyl end and one amino end
-proteins made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, a condensation reaction
-shape most important for proteins, four types:  Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
-Primary is just a straight chain
-Secondary is either alpha helix, or beta pleated sheet
-Tertiary is a combination of primary and secondary
-Quaternary is a combination of different primary, secondaries, and Tertiaries.
-Essential proteins are the ones humans need to eat; non-essential are the ones automatically produced by the human body

Lipids
-lipids are stored in animal body as triglycerides in adipose cells/fat cells
-triglycerides are made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol.
-saturated acids are linear because they only have single bonds
-unsaturated acids have double bonds, which creates the possibility of bending in the fats.
-unsaturated fats are healthier, as less can be stored, and they can be broken more easily because of their irregular shape.
-glycerol is hydrophilic and fatty acid is hydrophobic.
-a phospholipid is two fatty acids joined by a glycerol
-brown fat is baby fat, used for protection
-steroids are also a lipid
-excess carbs turn into lipids
-USES OF LIPIDS:  digestion, insulation, food storage (energy source), hormones (control), structure of cells, and vitamins to regulate body processes

Results: pH and Liver Catalyst

20% HCl
Start gas volume: 75 mL
Stop gas volume: 85 mL
Time: 1:58
* this was our first trial so we did it again because we thought we had made errors.

20% HCl (trial 2)
Start gas volume: 50 mL
Stop gas volume: 105 mL
Time: 0:22

40% HCl
Start gas volume: 85 mL
Stop gas volume: 500 mL (MAX)
Time: 0:23
*since this trial reached the maximum volume we did it again.

40% HCl (trial 2)
Start gas volume: 105 mL
Stop gas volume: 500 mL
Time: 0:34
*this one produced gas rapidly, then stopped, so time was stopped. Gas then suddenly continued being produced at the same pace, so time was started again.

60% HCl
Start gas volume: 50 mL
Stop gas volume: 225 mL
Time: 0:12

20% NaOH
Start gas volume: 60 mL
Stop gas volume: 500 mL (MAX)
Time: 0:55
*this one reached the max as well but we didn't have time to redo it.

40% NaOH
Start gas volume: 50 mL
Stop gas volume: ~550 mL
Time: 0:37
*this trial stopped about 50 mL after the 500 mL mark.

60% NaOH
Start gas volume: 60 mL
Stop gas volume: 400 mL
Time: 0:30

Importance of Entropy

Firstly, the definition for entropy is the measure of randomness or disorder in a collection of objects or energy; symbolized by S.  In layman terms connected to biology, entropy is the measure of the randomness of the particles in an object or system.  So an example would be when you add heat to an ice cube, the randomness of the particles increase, because the heat causes the particles to go from just vibrating to vibrating and moving fluidly into open space.

Entropy is also a part of the Thermodynamic Laws, namely being the second law.  The Second Law of Thermodynamics states:  All systems will spontaneously increase in entropy over time.

A good way to prove entropy:

1. Change of state
2. Energy Form
3. Number of particles

In addition, to quickly demonstrate a reaction has actually followed the laws of thermodynamics, balance the chemical equation.